We just updated the CLOS page on the Common Lisp Cookbook. You should refer to it for updates.

CLOS is the “Common Lisp Object System”, arguably one of the most powerful object systems available in any language.

Some of its features include:

• it is dynamic, making it a joy to work with in a Lisp REPL. For example, changing a class definition will update the existing objects, given certain rules which we have control upon.
• it supports multiple dispatch and multiple inheritance,
• it is different from most object systems in that class and method definitions are not tied together,
• it has excellent introspection capabilities,
• it is provided by a meta-object protocol, which provides a standard interface to the CLOS, and can be used to create new object systems.

The functionality belonging to this name was added to the Common Lisp language between the publication of Steele’s first edition of “Common Lisp, the Language” in 1984 and the formalization of the language as an ANSI standard ten years later.

This page aims to give a good understanding of how to use CLOS, but only a brief introduction to the MOP.

To learn the subjects in depth, you will need two books:

• Object-Oriented Programming in Common Lisp: a Programmer’s Guide to CLOS, by Sonya Keene,
• the Art of the Metaobject Protocol, by Gregor Kiczales, Jim des Rivières et al.

But see also

• the introduction in Practical Common Lisp (online), by Peter Seibel.
• Common Lisp, the Language
• and for reference, the complete CLOS-MOP specifications.

Table of Contents

• Classes and instances
  • Diving in
  • Creating objects (make-instance)
  • Slots
    • A function that always works (slot-value)
    • Initial and default values (initarg, initform)
    • Getters and setters (accessor, reader, writer)
    • Class VS instance slots
    • Slot documentation
    • Slot type
  • find-class, class-name, class-of
  • Subclasses and inheritance
  • Multiple inheritance
  • Redefining and changing a class
  • Pretty printing
  • Classes of traditional lisp types
  • Introspection
  • See also
    • defclass/std: write shorter classes
• Methods
  • Diving in
  • Generic functions (defgeneric, defmethod)
  • Multimethods
  • Controlling setters (setf-ing methods)
  • Dispatch mechanism and next methods
  • Method qualifiers (before, after, around)
  • Other method combinations
  • Debugging: tracing method combination
• MOP
  • Metaclasses
  • Controlling the initialization of instances (initialize-instance)

Classes and instances

Diving in

Let’s dive in with an example showing class definition, creation of objects, slot access, methods specialized for a given class, and inheritance.

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)
   (lisper
    :initform nil
    :accessor lisper)))

;; => #<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON>

(defvar p1 (make-instance 'person :name "me" ))
;;                                 ^^^^ initarg
;; => #<PERSON {1006234593}>

(name p1)
;;^^^ accessor
;; => "me"

(lisper p1)
;; => nil
;;    ^^ initform (slot unbound by default)

(setf (lisper p1) t)


(defclass child (person)
  ())

(defclass child (person)
  ((can-walk-p
     :accessor can-walk-p
     :initform t)))
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS CHILD>

(can-walk-p (make-instance 'child))
;; T

Defining classes (defclass)

The macro used for defining new data types in CLOS is defclass.

We used it like this:

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)
   (lisper
    :initform nil
    :accessor lisper)))

This gives us a CLOS type (or class) called person and two slots, named name and lisper.

(class-of p1)
#<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON>

(type-of p1)
PERSON

The general form of defclass is:

(defclass <class-name> (list of super classes)
  ((slot-1
     :slot-option slot-argument)
   (slot-2, etc))
  (:optional-class-option
   :another-optional-class-option))

So, our person class doesn’t explicitely inherit from another class (it gets the empty parentheses ()). However it still inherits by default from the class t and from standard-object. See below under “inheritance”.

We could write a minimal class definition without slots options like this:

(defclass point ()
  (x y z))

or even without slots specificiers: (defclass point () ()).

Creating objects (make-instance)

We create instances of a class with make-instance:

(defvar p1 (make-instance 'person :name "me" ))

It is generally good practice to define a constructor:

(defun make-person (name &key lisper)
  (make-instance 'person :name name :lisper lisper))

This has the direct advantage that you can control the required arguments. You should now export the constructor from your package and not the class itself.

Slots

A function that always works (slot-value)

The function to access any slot anytime is (slot-value <object> <slot-name>).

Given our point class above, which didn’t define any slot accessors:

(defvar pt (make-instance 'point))

(inspect pt)
The object is a STANDARD-OBJECT of type POINT.
0. X: "unbound"
1. Y: "unbound"
2. Z: "unbound"

We got an object of type POINT, but slots are unbound by default: trying to access them will raise an UNBOUND-SLOT condition:

(slot-value pt 'x) ;; => condition: the slot is unbound

slot-value is setf-able:

(setf (slot-value pt 'x) 1)
(slot-value pt 'x) ;; => 1

Initial and default values (initarg, initform)

• :initarg :foo is the keyword we can pass to make-instance to give a value to this slot:

(make-instance 'person :name "me")

(again: slots are unbound by default)

• :initform <val> is the default value in case we didn’t specify an initarg. This form is evaluated each time it’s needed, in the lexical environment of the defclass.

Sometimes we see the following trick to clearly require a slot:

(defclass foo ()
    ((a
      :initarg :a
      :initform (error "you didn't supply an initial value for slot a"))))
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS FOO>

(make-instance 'foo) ;; => enters the debugger.

Getters and setters (accessor, reader, writer)

• :accessor foo: an accessor is both a getter and a setter. Its argument is a name that will become a generic function.

(name p1) ;; => "me"

(type-of #'name)
STANDARD-GENERIC-FUNCTION

• :reader and :writer do what you expect. Only the :writer is setf-able.

If you don’t specify any of these, you can still use slot-value.

You can give a slot more than one :accessor, :reader or :initarg.

We introduce two macros to make the access to slots shorter in some situations:

1- with-slots allows to abbreviate several calls to slot-value. The first argument is a list of slot names. The second argument evaluates to a CLOS instance. This is followed by optional declarations and an implicit progn. Lexically during the evaluation of the body, an access to any of these names as a variable is equivalent to accessing the corresponding slot of the instance with slot-value.

(with-slots (name lisper)
    c1
  (format t "got ~a, ~a~&" name lisper))

or

(with-slots ((n name)
             (l lisper))
    c1
  (format t "got ~a, ~a~&" n l))

2- with-accessors is equivalent, but instead of a list of slots it takes a list of accessor functions. Any reference to the variable inside the macro is equivalent to a call to the accessor function.

(with-accessors ((name        name)
                  ^^variable  ^^accessor
                 (lisper lisper))
            p1
          (format t "name: ~a, lisper: ~a" name lisper))

Class VS instance slots

:allocation specifies whether this slot is local or shared.

• a slot is local by default, that means it can be different for each instance of the class. In that case :allocation equals :instance.

• a shared slot will always be equal for all instances of the class. We set it with :allocation :class.

In the following example, note how changing the value of the class slot species of p2 affects all instances of the class (whether or not those instances exist yet).

(defclass person ()
  ((name :initarg :name :accessor name)
   (species
      :initform 'homo-sapiens
      :accessor species
      :allocation :class)))

;; Note that the slot "lisper" was removed in existing instances.
(inspect p1)
;; The object is a STANDARD-OBJECT of type PERSON.
;; 0. NAME: "me"
;; 1. SPECIES: HOMO-SAPIENS
;; > q

(defvar p2 (make-instance 'person))

(species p1)
(species p2)
;; HOMO-SAPIENS

(setf (species p2) 'homo-numericus)
;; HOMO-NUMERICUS

(species p1)
;; HOMO-NUMERICUS

(species (make-instance 'person))
;; HOMO-NUMERICUS

(let ((temp (make-instance 'person)))
    (setf (species temp) 'homo-lisper))
;; HOMO-LISPER
(species (make-instance 'person))
;; HOMO-LISPER

Slot documentation

Each slot accepts one :documentation option.

Slot type

The :type slot option may not do the job you expect it does. If you are new to the CLOS, we suggest you skip this section and use your own constructors to manually check slot types.

Indeed, whether slot types are being checked or not is undefined. See the Hyperspec.

Few implementations will do it. Clozure CL does it, SBCL does it when safety is high ((declaim (optimize safety))).

To do it otherwise, see this Stack-Overflow answer, and see also quid-pro-quo, a contract programming library.

find-class, class-name, class-of

(find-class 'point)
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS POINT 275B78DC>

(class-name (find-class 'point))
;; POINT

(class-of my-point)
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS POINT 275B78DC>

(typep my-point (class-of my-point))
;; T

CLOS classes are also instances of a CLOS class, and we can find out what that class is, as in the example below:

(class-of (class-of my-point))
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS STANDARD-CLASS 20306534>

Note: this is your first introduction to the MOP. You don’t need that to get started !

The object my-point is an instance of the class named point, and the class named point is itself an instance of the class named standard-class. We say that the class named standard-class is the metaclass (i.e. the class of the class) of my-point. We can make good uses of metaclasses, as we’ll see later.

Subclasses and inheritance

As illustrated above, child is a subclass of person.

All objects inherit from the class standard-object and t.

Every child instance is also an instance of person.

(type-of c1)
;; CHILD

(subtypep (type-of c1) 'person)
;; T

(ql:quickload "closer-mop")
;; ...

(closer-mop:subclassp (class-of c1) 'person)
;; T

The closer-mop library is the portable way to do CLOS/MOP operations.

A subclass inherits all of its parents slots, and it can override any of their slot options. Common Lisp makes this process dynamic, great for REPL session, and we can even control parts of it (like, do something when a given slot is removed/updated/added, etc).

The class precedence list of a child is thus:

child <- person <-- standard-object <- t

Which we can get with:

(closer-mop:class-precedence-list (class-of c1))
;; (#<standard-class child>
;;  #<standard-class person>
;;  #<standard-class standard-object>
;;  #<sb-pcl::slot-class sb-pcl::slot-object>
;;  #<sb-pcl:system-class t>)

However, the direct superclass of a child is only:

(closer-mop:class-direct-superclasses (class-of c1))
;; (#<standard-class person>)

We can further inspect our classes with class-direct-[subclasses, slots, default-initargs] and many more functions.

How slots are combined follows some rules:

• :accessor and :reader are combined by the union of accessors and readers from all the inherited slots.

• :initarg: the union of initialization arguments from all the inherited slots.

• :initform: we get the most specific default initial value form, i.e. the first :initform for that slot in the precedence list.

• :allocation is not inherited. It is controlled solely by the class being defined and defaults to :instance.

Last but not least, be warned that inheritance is fairly easy to misuse, and multiple inheritance is multiply so, so please take a little care. Ask yourself whether foo really wants to inherit from bar, or whether instances of foo want a slot containing a bar. A good general guide is that if foo and bar are “same sort of thing” then it’s correct to mix them together by inheritance, but if they’re really separate concepts then you should use slots to keep them apart.

Multiple inheritance

CLOS supports multiple inheritance.

(defun baby (child person)
  ())

The first class on the list of parent classes is the most specific one, child’s slots will take precedence over the person’s

TODO (but remember how slots are merged).

Redefining and changing a class

This section briefly covers two topics:

• redefinition of an existing class, which you might already have done by following our code snippets, and what we do naturally during development, and
• changing an instance of one class into an instance of another, a powerful feature of CLOS that you’ll probably won’t use very often.

We’ll gloss over the details. Suffice it to say that everything’s configurable by implementing methods exposed by the MOP.

To redefine a class, simply evaluate a new defclass form. This then takes the place of the old definition, the existing class object is updated, and all instances of the class (and, recursively, its subclasses) are lazily updated to reflect the new definition. You don’t have to recompile anything other than the new defclass, nor to invalidate any of your objects. Think about it for a second: this is awesome !

For example, with our person class:

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)
   (lisper
    :initform nil
    :accessor lisper)))

(setf p1 (make-instance 'person :name "me" ))

Changing, adding, removing slots,…

(lisper p1)
;; NIL

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)
   (lisper
    :initform t        ;; <-- from nil to t
    :accessor lisper)))

(lisper p1)
;; NIL (of course!)

(lisper (make-instance 'person :name "You"))
;; T

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)
   (lisper
    :initform nil
    :accessor lisper)
   (age
    :initarg :arg
    :initform 18
    :accessor age)))

(age p1)
;; => slot unbound error. This is different from "slot missing":

(slot-value p1 'bwarf)
;; => "the slot bwarf is missing from the object #<person…>"

(setf (age p1) 30)
(age p1) ;; => 30

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)))

(slot-value p1 'lisper) ;; => slot lisper is missing.
(lisper p1) ;; => there is no applicable method for the generic function lisper when called with arguments #(lisper).

To change the class of an instance, use change-class:

(change-class p1 'child)
;; we can also set slots of the new class:
(change-class p1 'child :can-walk-p nil)

(class-of p1)
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS CHILD>

(can-walk-p p1)
;; T

In the above example, I became a child, and I inherited the can-walk-p slot, which is true by default.

Pretty printing

Everytime we printed an object so far we got an output like

#<PERSON {1006234593}>

which doesn’t say much.

What if we want to show more information ? Something like

#<PERSON me lisper: t>

Pretty printing is done by specializing the generic print-object method for this class:

(defmethod print-object ((obj person) stream)
      (print-unreadable-object (obj stream :type t)
        (with-accessors ((name name)
                         (lisper lisper))
            obj
          (format stream "~a, lisper: ~a" name lisper))))

It gives:

p1
;; #<PERSON me, lisper: T>

print-unreadable-object prints the #<...>, that says to the reader that this object can not be read back in. Its :type t argument asks to print the object-type prefix, that is, PERSON. Without it, we get #<me, lisper: T>.

We used the with-accessors macro, but of course for simple cases this is enough:

(defmethod print-object ((obj person) stream)
  (print-unreadable-object (obj stream :type t)
    (format stream "~a, lisper: ~a" (name obj) (lisper obj))))

Caution: trying to access a slot that is not bound by default will lead to an error. Use slot-boundp.

For reference, the following reproduces the default behaviour:

(defmethod print-object ((obj person) stream)
  (print-unreadable-object (obj stream :type t :identity t)))

Here, :identity to t prints the {1006234593} address.

Classes of traditional lisp types

Where we approach that we don’t need CLOS objects to use CLOS.

Generously, the functions introduced in the last section also work on lisp objects which are not CLOS instances:

(find-class 'symbol)
;; #<BUILT-IN-CLASS SYMBOL>
(class-name *)
;; SYMBOL
(eq ** (class-of 'symbol))
;; T
(class-of ***)
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS BUILT-IN-CLASS>

We see here that symbols are instances of the system class symbol. This is one of 75 cases in which the language requires a class to exist with the same name as the corresponding lisp type. Many of these cases are concerned with CLOS itself (for example, the correspondence between the type standard-class and the CLOS class of that name) or with the condition system (which might or might not be built using CLOS classes in any given implementation). However, 33 correspondences remain relating to “traditional” lisp types:

|array|hash-table|readtable| |bit-vector|integer|real| |broadcast-stream|list|sequence| |character|logical-pathname|stream| |complex|null|string| |concatenated-stream|number|string-stream| |cons|package|symbol| |echo-stream|pathname|synonym-stream| |file-stream|random-state|t| |float|ratio|two-way-stream| |function|rational|vector|

Note that not all “traditional” lisp types are included in this list. (Consider: atom, fixnum, short-float, and any type not denoted by a symbol.)

The presence of t is interesting. Just as every lisp object is of type t, every lisp object is also a member of the class named t. This is a simple example of membership of more then one class at a time, and it brings into question the issue of inheritance, which we will consider in some detail later.

(find-class t)
;; #<BUILT-IN-CLASS T 20305AEC>

In addition to classes corresponding to lisp types, there is also a CLOS class for every structure type you define:

(defstruct foo)
FOO

(class-of (make-foo))
;; #<STRUCTURE-CLASS FOO 21DE8714>

The metaclass of a structure-object is the class structure-class. It is implementation-dependent whether the metaclass of a “traditional” lisp object is standard-class, structure-class, or built-in-class. Restrictions:

|built-in-class| May not use make-instance, may not use slot-value, may not use defclass to modify, may not create subclasses.| |structure-class| May not use make-instance, might work with slot-value (implementation-dependent). Use defstruct to subclass application structure types. Consequences of modifying an existing structure-class are undefined: full recompilation may be necessary.| |standard-class|None of these restrictions.|

Introspection

we already saw some introspection functions.

Your best option is to discover the closer-mop libray and to keep the CLOS & MOP specifications at hand.

More functions:

closer-mop:class-default-initargs
closer-mop:class-direct-default-initargs
closer-mop:class-direct-slots
closer-mop:class-direct-subclasses
closer-mop:class-direct-superclasses
closer-mop:class-precedence-list
closer-mop:class-slots
closer-mop:classp
closer-mop:extract-lambda-list
closer-mop:extract-specializer-names
closer-mop:generic-function-argument-precedence-order
closer-mop:generic-function-declarations
closer-mop:generic-function-lambda-list
closer-mop:generic-function-method-class
closer-mop:generic-function-method-combination
closer-mop:generic-function-methods
closer-mop:generic-function-name
closer-mop:method-combination
closer-mop:method-function
closer-mop:method-generic-function
closer-mop:method-lambda-list
closer-mop:method-specializers
closer-mop:slot-definition
closer-mop:slot-definition-allocation
closer-mop:slot-definition-initargs
closer-mop:slot-definition-initform
closer-mop:slot-definition-initfunction
closer-mop:slot-definition-location
closer-mop:slot-definition-name
closer-mop:slot-definition-readers
closer-mop:slot-definition-type
closer-mop:slot-definition-writers
closer-mop:specializer-direct-generic-functions
closer-mop:specializer-direct-methods
closer-mop:standard-accessor-method

See also

defclass/std: write shorter classes

The library defclass/std provides a macro to write shorter defclass forms.

By default, it adds an accessor, an initarg and an initform to nil to your slots definition:

This:

(defclass/std example ()
  ((slot1 slot2 slot3)))

expands to:

(defclass example ()
  ((slot1
    :accessor slot1
    :initarg :slot1
    :initform nil)
   (slot2
     :accessor slot2
     :initarg :slot2
     :initform nil)
   (slot3
     :accessor slot3
     :initarg :slot3
     :initform nil)))

It does much more and it is very flexible, however it is seldom used by the Common Lisp community: use at your own risks©.

Methods

Diving in

Recalling our person and child classes from the beginning:

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)))
;; => #<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON>

(defclass child (person)
  ())
;; #<STANDARD-CLASS CHILD>

(setf p1 (make-instance 'person :name "me"))
(setf c1 (make-instance 'child :name "Alice"))

Below we create methods, we specialize them, we use method combination (before, after, around), and qualifiers.

(defmethod greet (obj)
  (format t "Are you a person ? You are a ~a.~&" (type-of obj)))
;; style-warning: Implicitly creating new generic function common-lisp-user::greet.
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET (t) {1008EE4603}>

(greet :anything)
;; Are you a person ? You are a KEYWORD.
;; NIL
(greet p1)
;; Are you a person ? You are a PERSON.

(defgeneric greet (obj)
  (:documentation "say hello"))
;; STYLE-WARNING: redefining COMMON-LISP-USER::GREET in DEFGENERIC
;; #<STANDARD-GENERIC-FUNCTION GREET (2)>

(defmethod greet ((obj person))
  (format t "Hello ~a !~&" (name obj)))
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET (PERSON) {1007C26743}>

(greet p1) ;; => "Hello me !"
(greet c1) ;; => "Hello Alice !"

(defmethod greet ((obj child))
  (format t "ur so cute~&"))
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET (CHILD) {1008F3C1C3}>

(greet p1) ;; => "Hello me !"
(greet c1) ;; => "ur so cute"

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;; Method combination: before, after, around.
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

(defmethod greet :before ((obj person))
  (format t "-- before person~&"))
#<STANDARD-METHOD GREET :BEFORE (PERSON) {100C94A013}>

(greet p1)
;; -- before person
;; Hello me

(defmethod greet :before ((obj child))
  (format t "-- before child~&"))
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET :BEFORE (CHILD) {100AD32A43}>
(greet c1)
;; -- before child
;; -- before person
;; ur so cute

(defmethod greet :after ((obj person))
  (format t "-- after person~&"))
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET :AFTER (PERSON) {100CA2E1A3}>
(greet p1)
;; -- before person
;; Hello me
;; -- after person

(defmethod greet :after ((obj child))
  (format t "-- after child~&"))
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET :AFTER (CHILD) {10075B71F3}>
(greet c1)
;; -- before child
;; -- before person
;; ur so cute
;; -- after person
;; -- after child

(defmethod greet :around ((obj child))
  (format t "Hello my dear~&"))
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET :AROUND (CHILD) {10076658E3}>
(greet c1) ;; Hello my dear


;; call-next-method

(defmethod greet :around ((obj child))
  (format t "Hello my dear~&")
  (when (next-method-p)
    (call-next-method)))
;; #<standard-method greet :around (child) {100AF76863}>

(greet c1)
;; Hello my dear
;; -- before child
;; -- before person
;; ur so cute
;; -- after person
;; -- after child

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;; Adding in &key
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

;; In order to add "&key" to our generic method, we need to remove its definition first.
(fmakunbound 'greet)  ;; with Slime: C-c C-u (slime-undefine-function)
(defmethod greet ((obj person) &key talkative)
  (format t "Hello ~a~&" (name obj))
  (when talkative
    (format t "blah")))

(defgeneric greet (obj &key &allow-other-keys)
  (:documentation "say hi"))

(defmethod greet (obj &key &allow-other-keys)
  (format t "Are you a person ? You are a ~a.~&" (type-of obj)))

(defmethod greet ((obj person) &key talkative &allow-other-keys)
  (format t "Hello ~a !~&" (name obj))
  (when talkative
    (format t "blah")))

(greet p1 :talkative t) ;; ok
(greet p1 :foo t) ;; still ok


;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

(defgeneric greet (obj)
  (:documentation "say hello")
  (:method (obj)
    (format t "Are you a person ? You are a ~a~&." (type-of obj)))
  (:method ((obj person))
    (format t "Hello ~a !~&" (name obj)))
  (:method ((obj child))
    (format t "ur so cute~&")))

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;
;;; Specializers
;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

(defgeneric feed (obj meal-type)
  (:method (obj meal-type)
    (declare (ignorable meal-type))
    (format t "eating~&")))

(defmethod feed (obj (meal-type (eql :dessert)))
    (declare (ignorable meal-type))
    (format t "mmh, dessert !~&"))

(feed c1 :dessert)
;; mmh, dessert !

(defmethod feed ((obj child) (meal-type (eql :soup)))
    (declare (ignorable meal-type))
    (format t "bwark~&"))

(feed p1 :soup)
;; eating
(feed c1 :soup)
;; bwark

Generic functions (defgeneric, defmethod)

A generic function is a lisp function which is associated with a set of methods and dispatches them when it’s invoked. All the methods with the same function name belong to the same generic function.

The defmethod form is similar to a defun. It associates a body of code with a function name, but that body may only be executed if the types of the arguments match the pattern declared by the lambda list.

They can have optional, keyword and &rest arguments.

The defgeneric form defines the generic function. If we write a defmethod without a corresponding defgeneric, a generic function is automatically created (see examples).

It is generally a good idea to write the defgenerics. We can add a default implementation and even some documentation.

(defgeneric greet (obj)
  (:documentation "says hi")
  (:method (obj)
    (format t "Hi")))

The required parameters in the method’s lambda list may take one of the following three forms:

1- a simple variable:

(defmethod greet (foo)
  ...)

This method can take any argument, it is always applicable.

The variable foo is bound to the corresponding argument value, as usual.

2- a variable and a specializer, as in:

(defmethod greet ((foo person))
  ...)

In this case, the variable foo is bound to the corresponding argument only if that argument is of specializer class person or a subclass, like child (indeed, a “child” is also a “person”).

If any argument fails to match its specializer then the method is not applicable and it cannot be executed with those arguments.We’ll get an error message like “there is no applicable method for the generic function xxx when called with arguments yyy”.

Only required parameters can be specialized. We can’t specialize on optional &key arguments.

3- a variable and an eql specializer

(defmethod feed ((obj child) (meal-type (eql :soup)))
    (declare (ignorable meal-type))
    (format t "bwark~&"))

(feed c1 :soup)
;; "bwark"

In place of a simple symbol (:soup), the eql specializer can be any lisp form. It is evaluated at the same time of the defmethod.

You can define any number of methods with the same function name but with different specializers, as long as the form of the lambda list is congruent with the shape of the generic function. The system chooses the most specific applicable method and executes its body. The most specific method is the one whose specializers are nearest to the head of the class-precedence-list of the argument (classes on the left of the lambda list are more specific). A method with specializers is more specific to one without any.

Notes:

• It is an error to define a method with the same function name as an ordinary function. If you really want to do that, use the shadowing mechanism.

• To add or remove keys or rest arguments to an existing generic method’s lambda list, you will need to delete its declaration with fmakunbound (or C-c C-u (slime-undefine-function) with the cursor on the function in Slime) and start again. Otherwise, you’ll see:

attempt to add the method
  #<STANDARD-METHOD NIL (#<STANDARD-CLASS CHILD>) {1009504233}>
to the generic function
  #<STANDARD-GENERIC-FUNCTION GREET (2)>;
but the method and generic function differ in whether they accept
&REST or &KEY arguments.

• Methods can be redefined (exactly as for ordinary functions).

• The order in which methods are defined is irrelevant, although any classes on which they specialize must already exist.

• An unspecialized argument is more or less equivalent to being specialized on the class t. The only difference is that all specialized arguments are implicitly taken to be “referred to” (in the sense of declare ignore.)

• Each defmethod form generates (and returns) a CLOS instance, of class standard-method.

• An eql specializer won’t work as is with strings. Indeed, strings need equal or equalp to be compared. But, we can assign our string to a variable and use the variable both in the eql specializer and for the function call.

• All the methods with the same function name belong to the same generic function.

• All slot accessors and readers defined by defclass are methods. They can override or be overridden by other methods on the same generic function.

See more about defmethod on the CLHS.

Multimethods

Multimethods explicitly specialize more than one of the generic function’s required parameters.

They don’t belong to a particular class. Meaning, we don’t have to decide on the class that would be best to host this method, as we might have to in other languages.

(defgeneric hug (a b)
   (:documentation "Hug between two persons."))
;; #<STANDARD-GENERIC-FUNCTION HUG (0)>

(defmethod hug ((a person) (b person))
  :person-person-hug)

(defmethod hug ((a person) (b child))
  :person-child-hug)

Read more on Practical Common Lisp.

Controlling setters (setf-ing methods)

In Lisp, we can define setf counterparts of functions or methods. We might want this to have more control on how to update an object.

(defmethod (setf name) (new-val (obj person))
  (if (equalp new-val "james bond")
    (format t "Dude that's not possible.~&")
    (setf (slot-value obj 'name) new-val)))

(setf (name p1) "james bond") ;; -> no rename

If you know Python, this behaviour is provided by the @property decorator.

Dispatch mechanism and next methods

When a generic function is invoked, the application cannot directly invoke a method. The dispatch mechanism proceeds as follows:

1. compute the list of applicable methods
2. if no method is applicable then signal an error
3. sort the applicable methods in order of specificity
4. invoke the most specific method.

Our greet generic function has three applicable methods:

(closer-mop:generic-function-methods #'greet)
(#<STANDARD-METHOD GREET (CHILD) {10098406A3}>
 #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET (PERSON) {1009008EC3}>
 #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET (T) {1008E6EBB3}>)

During the execution of a method, the remaining applicable methods are still accessible, via the local function call-next-method. This function has lexical scope within the body of a method but indefinite extent. It invokes the next most specific method, and returns whatever value that method returned. It can be called with either:

• no arguments, in which case the next method will receive exactly the same arguments as this method did, or

• explicit arguments, in which case it is required that the sorted set of methods applicable to the new arguments must be the same as that computed when the generic function was first called.

For example:

(defmethod greet ((obj child))
  (format t "ur so cute~&")
  (when (next-method-p)
    (call-next-method)))
;; STYLE-WARNING: REDEFINING GREET (#<STANDARD-CLASS CHILD>) in DEFMETHOD
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD GREET (child) {1003D3DB43}>

(greet c1)
;; ur so cute
;; Hello Alice !

Calling call-next-method when there is no next method signals an error. You can find out whether a next method exists by calling the local function next-method-p (which also has has lexical scope and indefinite extent).

Note finally that the body of every method establishes a block with the same name as the method’s generic function. If you return-from that name you are exiting the current method, not the call to the enclosing generic function.

Method qualifiers (before, after, around)

In our “Diving in” examples, we saw some use of the :before, :after and :around qualifiers:

• (defmethod foo :before (obj) (...))
• (defmethod foo :after (obj) (...))
• (defmethod foo :around (obj) (...))

By default, in the standard method combination framework provided by CLOS, we can only use one of those three qualifiers, and the flow of control is as follows:

• a before-method is called, well, before the applicable primary method. If they are many before-methods, all are called. The most specific before-method is called first (child before person).
• the most specific applicable primary method (a method without qualifiers) is called (only one).
• all applicable after-methods are called. The most specific one is called last (after-method of person, then after-method of child).

The generic function returns the value of the primary method. Any values of the before or after methods are ignored. They are used for their side effects.

And then we have around-methods. They are wrappers around the core mechanism we just described. They can be useful to catch return values or to set up an environment around the primary method (set up a catch, a lock, timing an execution,…).

If the dispatch mechanism finds an around-method, it calls it and returns its result. If the around-method has a call-next-method, it calls the next most applicable around-method. It is only when we reach the primary method that we start calling the before and after-methods.

Thus, the full dispatch mechanism for generic functions is as follows:

1. compute the applicable methods, and partition them into separate lists according to their qualifier;
2. if there is no applicable primary method then signal an error;
3. sort each of the lists into order of specificity;
4. execute the most specific :around method and return whatever that returns;
5. if an :around method invokes call-next-method, execute the next most specific :around method;

6. if there were no :around methods in the first place, or if an :around method invokes call-next-method but there are no further :around methods to call, then proceed as follows:

   a. run all the :before methods, in order, ignoring any return values and not permitting calls to call-next-method or next-method-p;

   b. execute the most specific primary method and return whatever that returns;

   c. if a primary method invokes call-next-method, execute the next most specific primary method;

   d. if a primary method invokes call-next-method but there are no further primary methods to call then signal an error;

   e. after the primary method(s) have completed, run all the :after methods, in reverse order, ignoring any return values and not permitting calls to call-next-method or next-method-p.

Think of it as an onion, with all the :around methods in the outermost layer, :before and :after methods in the middle layer, and primary methods on the inside.

Other method combinations

The default method combination type we just saw is named standard, but other method combination types are available, and no need to say that you can define your own.

The built-in types are:

progn + list nconc and max or append min

You notice that these types are named after a lisp operator. Indeed, what they do is they define a framework that combines the applicable primary methods inside a call to the lisp operator of that name. For example, using the progn combination type is equivalent to calling all the primary methods one after the other:

(progn
  (method-1 args)
  (method-2 args)
  (method-3 args))

Here, unlike the standard mechanism, all the primary methods applicable for a given object are called, the most specific first.

To change the combination type, we set the :method-combination option of defgeneric and we use it as the methods’ qualifier:

(defgeneric foo (obj)
  (:method-combination progn))

(defmethod foo progn ((obj obj))
   (...))

An example with progn:

(defgeneric dishes (obj)
   (:method-combination progn)
   (:method progn (obj)
     (format t "- clean and dry.~&"))
   (:method progn ((obj person))
     (format t "- bring a person's dishes~&"))
   (:method progn ((obj child))
     (format t "- bring the baby dishes~&")))
;; #<STANDARD-GENERIC-FUNCTION DISHES (3)>

(dishes c1)
;; - bring the baby dishes
;; - bring a person's dishes
;; - clean and dry.

(greet c1)
;; ur so cute  --> only the most applicable method was called.

Similarly, using the list type is equivalent to returning the list of the values of the methods.

(list
  (method-1 args)
  (method-2 args)
  (method-3 args))

(defgeneric tidy (obj)
  (:method-combination list)
  (:method list (obj)
    :foo)
  (:method list ((obj person))
    :books)
  (:method list ((obj child))
    :toys))
;; #<STANDARD-GENERIC-FUNCTION TIDY (3)>

(tidy c1)
;; (:toys :books :foo)

Around methods are accepted:

(defmethod tidy :around (obj)
   (let ((res (call-next-method)))
     (format t "I'm going to clean up ~a~&" res)
     (when (> (length res)
              1)
       (format t "that's too much !~&"))))

(tidy c1)
;; I'm going to clean up (toys book foo)
;; that's too much !

Note that these operators don’t support before, after and around methods (indeed, there is no room for them anymore). They do support around methods, where call-next-method is allowed, but they don’t support calling call-next-method in the primary methods (it would indeed be redundant since all primary methods are called, or clunky to not call one).

CLOS allows us to define a new operator as a method combination type, be it a lisp function, macro or special form. We’ll let you refer to the books if you feel the need.

Debugging: tracing method combination

It is possible to trace the method combination, but this is implementation dependent.

In SBCL, we can use (trace foo :methods t). See this post by an SBCL core developer.

For example, given a generic:

(defgeneric foo (x)
  (:method (x) 3))
(defmethod foo :around ((x fixnum))
  (1+ (call-next-method)))
(defmethod foo ((x integer))
  (* 2 (call-next-method)))
(defmethod foo ((x float))
  (* 3 (call-next-method)))
(defmethod foo :before ((x single-float))
  'single)
(defmethod foo :after ((x double-float))
 'double)

Let’s trace it:

(trace foo :methods t)

(foo 2.0d0)
  0: (FOO 2.0d0)
    1: ((SB-PCL::COMBINED-METHOD FOO) 2.0d0)
      2: ((METHOD FOO (FLOAT)) 2.0d0)
        3: ((METHOD FOO (T)) 2.0d0)
        3: (METHOD FOO (T)) returned 3
      2: (METHOD FOO (FLOAT)) returned 9
      2: ((METHOD FOO :AFTER (DOUBLE-FLOAT)) 2.0d0)
      2: (METHOD FOO :AFTER (DOUBLE-FLOAT)) returned DOUBLE
    1: (SB-PCL::COMBINED-METHOD FOO) returned 9
  0: FOO returned 9
9

MOP

We gather here some examples that make use of the framework provided by the meta-object protocol, the configurable object system that rules Lisp’s object system. We touch advanced concepts so, new reader, don’t worry: you don’t need to understand this section to start using the Common Lisp Object System.

We won’t explain much about the MOP here, but hopefully sufficiently to make you see its possibilities or to help you understand how some CL libraries are built. We invite you to read the books referenced in the introduction.

Metaclasses

Metaclasses are needed to control the behaviour of other classes.

As announced, we won’t talk much. See also Wikipedia for metaclasses or CLOS.

The standard metaclass is standard-class:

(class-of p1) ;; #<STANDARD-CLASS PERSON>

But we’ll change it to one of our own, so that we’ll be able to count the creation of instances. This same mechanism could be used to auto increment the primary key of a database system (this is how the Postmodern or Mito libraries do), to log the creation of objects, etc.

Our metaclass inherits from standard-class:

(defclass counted-class (standard-class)
  ((counter :initform 0)))
#<STANDARD-CLASS COUNTED-CLASS>

(unintern 'person)
;; this is necessary to change the metaclass of person.
;; or (setf (find-class 'person) nil)
;; https://stackoverflow.com/questions/38811931/how-to-change-classs-metaclass#38812140

(defclass person ()
  ((name
    :initarg :name
    :accessor name)
  (:metaclass counted-class))) ;; <- metaclass
;; #<COUNTED-CLASS PERSON>
;;   ^^^ not standard-class anymore.

The :metaclass class option can appear only once.

Actually you should have gotten a message asking to implement validate-superclass. So, still with the closer-mop library:

(defmethod closer-mop:validate-superclass ((class counted-class)
                                           (superclass standard-class))
  t)

Now we can control the creation of new person instances:

(defmethod make-instance :after ((class counted-class) &key)
  (incf (slot-value class 'counter)))
;; #<STANDARD-METHOD MAKE-INSTANCE :AFTER (COUNTED-CLASS) {1007718473}>

See that an :after qualifier is the safest choice, we let the standard method run as usual and return a new instance.

The &key is necessary, remember that make-instance is given initargs.

Now testing:

(defvar p3 (make-instance 'person :name "adam"))
#<PERSON {1007A8F5B3}>

(slot-value p3 'counter)
;; => error. No, our new slot isn't on the person class.
(slot-value (find-class 'person) 'counter)
;; 1

(make-instance 'person :name "eve")
;; #<PERSON {1007AD5773}>
(slot-value (find-class 'person) 'counter)
;; 2

It’s working.

Controlling the initialization of instances (initialize-instance)

To further customize the creation of instances by specializing initialize-instance, which is called by make-instance, just after it has created a new instance but didn’t initialize it yet with the default initargs and initforms.

It is recommended (Keene) to create an after method, since creating a primary method would prevent slots’ initialization.

(defmethod initialize-instance :after ((obj person) &key)
  (do something with obj))

Another rational. The CLOS implementation of make-instance is in two stages: allocate the new object, and then pass it along with all the make-instance keyword arguments, to the generic function initialize-instance. Implementors and application writers define :after methods on initialize-instance, to initialize the slots of the instance. The system-supplied primary method does this with regard to (a) :initform and :initarg values supplied with the class was defined and (b) the keywords passed through from make-instance. Other methods can extend this behaviour as they see fit. For example, they might accept an additional keyword which invokes a database access to fill certain slots. The lambda list for initialize-instance is:

initialize-instance instance &rest initargs &key &allow-other-keys

See more in the books !